A Place for the Heathlands

The Serra da Estrela (“Star Mountain”) is situated in central-eastern Portugal. Much of the region lies within the Parque Natural da Serra da Estrela, created in 1976. Covering around 1,000 km², the area is a crucial crossroads within Portugal’s interior ecological network. In addition to its designation as a natural park, parts of the region are subject to various international protection measures.^{1 ( 1 )}
Jansen 2002.

Human impact on Serra da Estrela’s landscape dates back approximately 7600 BP, with ecological changes initially concentrated in the lowlands. By 5500 BP, these activities extended to lower mountain slopes, and they reached higher altitudes a millennium later.^{2 ( 2 )}
Van der Knaap & Van Leeuwen 1994, 1995. The spread of farming practices from coastal to interior regions introduced Neolithic domesticated crops to central Portugal around 7300 BP.^{3 ( 3 )}
Silva & Van der Linden 2017, Zeder 2008, Zilhão 2001. Palynological studies indicate that cereals and grazing activities emerged between 7600 BP and 4500 BP, marking the advent of the Neolithic revolution in the area.

By 3500 BP, human activity was the primary driver of landscape change, including the early adoption of infield–outfield farming practices.^{4 ( 4 )}
Van der Knaap & Van Leeuwen 1995, Van den Brink & Janssen 1985.

Lusitanians, the area’s earliest identified inhabitants, settled by 2600 BP, further shaping the landscape through agropastoral activities. This period also saw the emergence of megalithic structures and strategically constructed hill forts (“castros”), underscoring the growing integration of agricultural and social systems.^{5 ( 5 )}
Silva 2013.

The diverse topography, geology, and climate of Serra da Estrela historically supported a wide range of seminatural habitats. The infield–outfield farming system formed the backbone of the region’s agropastoral practices, combining rye and chestnut cultivation with livestock breeding and transhumance.^{6 ( 6 )}
Jansen et al. 2013.

Heathland farming exemplified this system, operating on two levels: intensively farmed infields near settlements, and low-maintenance, heath-rich outfields for grazing. These outfields included scrublands, moorlands, fens, and poor grasslands. Farmers and shepherds maintained a balance between Nardus grasslands and Calluna heaths through grazing, vegetation burning, and hydrological management. The success of this circular system relied on collaborative efforts, creating intricately biodiverse landscapes.^{7 ( 7 )}
Christiansen 1978, Hamerow 2004, Jansen J 2008, Haaland 2002.

Shepherds played a pivotal role, timing livestock grazing and transporting nutrients and seeds across habitats.^{8 ( 8 )}
Jansen et al. 1997. This movement established a network of interconnected biotopes, visible today in landscape features like hedges, shrublands, walls, and windbreaks, which serve as biodiversity hotspots. The system supported diverse plant communities, including ephemeral plants in inundated cart tracks and specialized grazing gradients.

Portugal is home to remarkable biodiversity within the heath family, with at least nine purple-flowering heather species and numerous white-flowering varieties. These heath-based ecosystems support hundreds of interconnected organisms, from plants and animals to fungi and mycorrhiza. Today, many Natura 2000 habitats in Serra da Estrela owe their existence to traditional heathland management. Despite their ecological significance, these habitats face threats as traditional agropastoral systems decline, leaving landscapes increasingly neglected.

Land abandonment and afforestation since the late nineteenth century, and particularly the rise of pine plantations, have significantly altered the landscape. Pine trees, which grow quickly and offer short-term economic gains, have replaced vast areas of heathland. This shift has left shepherds and heath farmers with diminished grazing in outfields and increased the risk of catastrophic wildfires.^{9 ( 9 )}
Ribeiro 1958, Jansen et al. 2013.

Wildfires have become a dominant driver of landscape change, exacerbated by dry climatic conditions.^{10 ( 10 )}
Jansen & Diemont 2011, Santos & Miranda, 2006. Unlike the controlled burning used in traditional farming systems, wildfires devastate ecosystems, destroy infrastructure, and cause human suffering. Their economic costs include erosion, landslides, blocked rivers, and carbon emissions, often exceeding the yearly anthropogenic emissions.^{11 ( 11 )}
Fernandes et al. 2022.

In 2017, approximately 17,000 hectares of Serra da Estrela burned. By August 2022, wildfires had devastated 27,000 hectares – over a quarter of the natural park. Pine plantations, which are highly flammable, were particularly affected. During fires, the intense heat often causes pine crowns to release gases that ignite explosively, rapidly spreading flames to adjacent plantations and abandoned shrublands dominated by fast-burning species like broom and rockroses.^{12 ( 12 )}
Jansen et al. 1977.

In the wake of two catastrophic wildfires, Serra da Estrela faces an opportunity to explore alternative land-use strategies that prioritize sustainability, resilience, and cultural heritage. Moving beyond reliance on economically driven pine plantations, the region could experiment with a diversified approach, incorporating elements such as grazed scrublands, pastures, and small forests of less flammable native tree species. Revitalizing traditional agropastoral systems and integrating innovative practices may reduce wildfire risks, while preserving the ecological and cultural legacy of this unique landscape. The outcomes of these efforts remain open-ended, but hold the potential to foster deeper connections between people, biodiversity, and the land.